Scholarly Writing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Scholarly Writing - Essay Example In science, any decision made has to rely on tested evidence and factual data, for example psychology. As discussed in (â€Å"Psychology as a Science†, 2013), this is because it involves systematic observation, data collection, and data analysis (empiricism), the examination of testable problems, and the falsifiability of result. Information in science should be testable, and people can refer the decision as a fact. A scientific decision goes through different stages such as data collection, data analysis and testing to ensure its authenticity. Scientific decisions only factor in factual data (Pope, 1998). On the other hand, however, common sense does not rely in any form of data or tested information. An individual, basing his or her reasoning on what he believes to be true or as "intuitively obvious" makes a decision about a particular issue. Such a decision lacks any form of data or evidence. Therefore, the decision arrived at could be either true or false. According to (â €Å"Psychology as a Science†, 2013), the problem with common sense ideas about behavior is that much of it is contradictory, leaving one to wonder still about the actual answer to some of life’s questions. Common sense involves critical thinking. According to Douglas (2000), critical thinking puts into consideration the importance of beliefs. Since people find it easier to believe than to disbelieve, critical thinking helps them back their reasoning to believe in any decision they come up with. As discussed in (â€Å"Psychology as a Science†, 2013), a good critical thinker uses scientific inquiry to discover that both cliches in each dichotomy are unsupported, that only one is supported, or that both are actually supported. Personally, critical thinking helps me in believing what I have learnt or read. It is possible to differentiate between something that is true and one that is untrue by critically analyzing a text by use of prior information. Belief persevera nce is the tendency of an individual o hold on to his or her initial belief, even when provided with new information that contradicts the present belief. Paul & Elder (2003) assert that critical thinking involves focusing on the purpose of thinking, questions the thinking is pursuing, the information in use, the assumptions and inferences made, concepts and point of view guiding the thinking and the implications of the thinking. Belief perseverance acts in ignorance with this argument, as here is no way of solving an individual’s decision, despite being acquainted with this knowledge. Personally, I try to use common sense to allow for critical thinking in place of personal belief. With common sense, I know when something is wrong and when right. I cannot interchange these two, to make something right wrong and something wrong right using common sense. References Douglas, N. L. (2000). Enemies of critical thinking: Lessons from social psychology research. Reading Psychology, 2 1(2), 129–144. Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2003). Critical thinking: Teaching students how to study and learn (Part III). Journal of Developmental Education, 26(3), 36-37. Pope, K. S. (1998). Pseudoscience, cross-examination, and scientific evidence in the recovered memory controversy. Psychology, Public Policy, & Law, 4(4), 1160-1181. Psychology as a Science. (2013). [Study notes] Scholarly Writing The author had a good topic of discussion; the personal computer. The author, while introducing the topic, digs a little background

Human Rights Essay Example for Free

Human Rights Essay The Internet appears to be the ideal technology for democracy. When the Internet began, people thought they could communicate and even engage in commerce without the need for a big police force. As people from different cultures begin connecting to the Internet, it appears that the Internet is only as democratic as people make it. Government’s next move online has been significantly less comfortable. China has recently forced Google to rewrite their search software so that it supports the values of state security over individual freedom by blocking certain sites. In order to continue doing business in China, the Chinese government forced Google to disable certain functionalities of their products so that Chinese citizens cannot connect to Web pages on topics such as human rights and democracy. The Chinese government and Google derived the so-called Great Firewall of China in order to conceal from the public the potential contents that may pose threat to Chinese ideologies and politics. References Baase, S. (2007).Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues for Computing and the Internet. Pearson Prentice Hall. Garland, E. (2007). Future, Inc. : How Businesses Can Anticipate and Profit from Whats Next. AMACOM Div American Management. Giddens, A. (2006). Sociology. Polity. Hassan, R. (2004). Media, Politics and the Network Society. McGraw-Hill International. Human Rights Watch, . (2007). Human Rights Watch World Report 2007. Seven Stories Press. Landow, G. P. (2006). Hypertext 3. 0: Critical Theory and New Media in an Era of Globalization. JHU Press. Marling, W. H. (2006). How American Is Globalization?. JHU Press. Meza, E. P. (2007). Coming Attractions? : Hollywood, High Tech, and the Future of Entertainment. Stanford University Press. Reuvid, J. , Li, Y. (2005). Doing Business With China. GMB Publishing Ltd. Wood, A. F. , Smith, M. J. (2005). Online Communication: Linking Technology, Identity, and Culture. Routledge.

The Strengths And Limitations Of Personalisation Social Work Essay

The Strengths And Limitations Of Personalisation Social Work Essay With the continuously growing number of older population in the country and the life expectancy that keeps on increasing, the demand for the elderly care is also equally on the increase. Consequently the government are also putting in effort in order to continue improving the service provided for the elderly care such as the introduction of personalisation into the care service in the government policy in December 2007, when the Putting People First concordat was published. This is the reason why this assignment will be looking into this concept of personalisation in further depth along by looking at the strengths and limitations of implementing it into the social care. CONTENT The term personalisation as picked up by the Department of Health and is being used as a term to describe the series of reforms drawn out in the 2007 concordat Putting People First. In its formulations the policies have been set within the following framework of improving access to universal services, the prevention and early intervention, the increase of choice and control by the users and also growing social capital for the care (Department of Health, 2009). In addition to this, personalisation is about giving people more choice and control over their lives in all social care settings. It also means to recognise the user as a person with strengths and preferences and it starts with the user instead of the service (Social Care Institute for Excellence, 2012). The reasons why personalisation is introduced in social care is because the government is against the one size fits all concept in terms of providing care as it has been found to have not met most of the needs of the user especially with the fact that all users are different. The second reason is to finish up the The 1988 Griffiths Report on Community Care in which it advises that social services should become brokers to a range of care and support providers. It also proposed that social workers should take on a care management role.Thirdly is to combat the McDonaldisation in social care. This McDonaldisation thesis consists of five primary components of efficiency (minimising time in delivering care), calculability (trying to get user to believe that they are getting quality care for lesser money spent), predictability (where the care provided are highly routine and predictable), control (standardised and uniform care provider) and also, culture (as part of the standardised control) . Finally, personalisation is implemented due to the convergence of disability movement and also the increasing neo-liberal marketisation. The disability movement as a part of service user movement and the social model of disability have been a really powerful driving forces in lobbying for government reforms. An evidence for this is the Community Care (Direct Payments) Act, 1996 where the direct payments have been made available to the disabled adults of working age in England and have since been extended to other groups (Carr, 2010). The popularity and success has stimulated much of the personalisation around service users and also the development of personal budgets (Glasby and Littlechild, 2009). In November 2010, A vision for adult social care: capable communities and active citizens document was published, with personal budgets and personalisation, put central along with prevention, health and social care integration and the development of a plural and creative social care market to enable choice forming central aspects of the continuing social care reform. In this document too, it was made clear that personal budget alone does not in itself mean that services are automatically personalised. People should get personal choice and control over their services rather than the inflexible block contracts from supported housing to personal care (Department of Health 2010). Glasby (2012) explained that the concept of personal budgets is rather than assessing the users needs and selecting services from fairly limited menu of options, personal budgets start by placing each individual into a cost band and being up front about the resources available. By knowing how much of money is a vailable for them to spend on their needs then allows them and their circle of support to make decisions about how the money could best be spent (by direct services, direct payments, public services, the independent sector, paying family and friend or any of the combination). Some of the strengths of using personalisation concept are the users outcomes can be improved and at the same time, costs can be reduced as people who control their own budgets are able to find smarter solutions for meeting their needs and can reduce their need for paid support. This is possible because the person is empowered to make the better, right kind of decisions, seize new opportunities and respond more quickly to their own problems. In the old welfare system the government pushes resources into those services that it believes people need. Users can only receive little benefit from these resources because it is unlikely that the services are perfectly tailored to meet their needs and there is no opportunity for the user to mobilise those resources to pull in in other resources. However, when someone has a Personal Budget they are able to make quality, efficient use of those resources. Such as rather than paying  £10,000 per year at the day centre and the user will simply ha ve to put up with whatever services offered there that they do not value. Instead, if the user is given a  £10,000 Personal Budget they then can actually spend some of their budget on those particular services they value, e.g. only coming into the centre on the good days. This process explains why people can get better lives with less money as the money that can be controlled works better with the new found freedom than the money that cannot be controlled (Duffy, 2010). Other than offering better quality choices and empowering the service user, personalisation also is shown to be consistently cost effective of the public finance as found by Glasby and Littlechild (2002) that direct payments support are on average 30-40 per cent cheaper than the equivalent directly provided services. In addition to this, it was discovered that carers feel the relationship between them and the service user has improved due to them or their relatives being able to access the direct payments (Rethink Mental Illness, 2011). Finlayson (2002) also suggested that this positive relationship between the carer and service user is central to carers job motivation and satisfaction as in turn it will increase the quality of care provided. Another advantage of this concept as suggested by Zarb and Nadash (1994) is that the flexibility of the service is enhanced. The service provided is fitted around the users time on top of their different needs rather than fitted around the carer s timetable. Although according to the findings discussed earlier that expressed the positive outcomes of personalisation, there are few limitations associated into practicing it. The first one is that it is inappropriate to some users especially those who are mentally incapable and the elderly. It is found to be a daunting experience as they are suppose to manage their own financial arrangements directly which will also add extra burden and unwanted stress for them. On top of this, most of service users are also anxious by becoming employers and having to deal with responsibility particularly when they are unwell. This is especially with regard to assistance with the direct payments managing of the service user, either by family member, friend or support agency on the users behalf. In addition to this issue, the potential problem that could possibly happen regarding the vulnerable user is being exploited and potential for their money to be fraud (Leece and Bornat, 2006). On the other hand, as su ggested by Glasby and Littlechild (2009) the local authorities have a key role in making their systems as simple as possible and also proportionate to the risk, along with the availability of independent support (such as peer support and support agency) and the advent of self-directed support to reduce potential hassle from this concept should any problem arise. Another limitation of this concept is the community care assessments that are carried out sometimes underestimated the needs of user, especially those with mental illness as their needs are subjective (for instance, not so obvious on a good day) and therefore failed to be met. To make matter worse, these assessments are often not person-centred as it lacks of users involvement in decision making thus, they tend to be passive recipients and disempowered. This highlights the need of a better person-centred assessment by the professionals involved as the central element in the direct payments is good assessment. Hence, a better, different kind of relationship needs to be developed between the professional and the users as well as other approach to allocate the community care resources for this particular service user (Leece and Bornat, 2006). Another problem is direct payments and personal budgets are identified as a threat to the professional expertise of the social workers, as well as the longer hours due to the flexibility needed. It was also suggested that at one critical point, services will not be able to be managed properly as more users are becoming employers thus, changing the balance of the services'(Leece and Bornat, 2006). In contrast, direct payments and personal budgets are able to free social workers up to focus on people who are in greater need of support and thus, reconnect their value base and principles of profession (Glasby and Littlechild, 2009). Furthermore, the monopoly of market with the increasing choice through the direct payments is seen to be a problem. This will someway force the existing providers to make more effort to be more appealing to the service users in order to avoid of going bust. Additionally the real goals of these providers are often doubted as whether they will put quality care over profit-making (Leece and Bornat, 2006). The argument against this is that with the presence of competition, the providers will struggle to increase their quality of care along with a better value in order to keep up with the other providers. The strengths of the concept of personalisation as per discussed have found to be outweighed by the limitations that are associated to it. This is also proved to be the case as nearly all users is found to be satisfied with their experiences of using the direct payment as they found it to be more convenient and secure in the research carried out for the Department for Work and Pensions (2004). Out of the total participants, 75% reported to have found no disadvantages when using the direct payment. CONCLUSION The concept of personalisation has had a long history on why the government want to put it into practice as a way of reforming the social care particularly in the last few years when the direct payments and personal budgets were introduced. This was proved to be a huge success with majority of the users are extremely satisfied with how it has changed their lives in terms of empowering and giving them better quality of choices. Moreover, it was also found to be cost-effective and thus, able to save large amount of the public fund. However, as this concept was also subjected to few arguments against it, such as it not being able to cater certain types of user, there is also backup plan, support and effort made by the local authorities to minimise this. Moreover, the arguments that it threatens the social workers profession and the market balance are found to be ungrounded. Thus, the benefit of implementing personalisation in social care was found to overshadow the limitations as discus sed earlier.

education in France :: essays research papers

The education system in France: (source: European Union) I. Information on Community Law II. Information concerning the national education system III. Useful addresses I. Information on Community Law The fundamental principle of non-discrimination on grounds of nationality between students studying in a foreign country and national students applies as regards admission to an educational or training establishment. This includes enrolment fee requirements and the conditions governing the award of a grant to cover such fees. In this respect, any Community citizen must be treated in the same way as national citizens. One example of the kind of problem which young people studying another country may encounter would be special requirements on admission, the need to pass tests or supply documentary evidence, or other such conditions which are not required of nationals, and which have no objective justification. Each Member State's law provides for financial assistance for students in higher education. Some countries' laws may make it possible for a grant to be transferred where a student decides to study in another country. In other words, the student may continue to receive financial aid from his/her country of origin while studying in another Member State. Students covered by the Erasmus chapter of the Socrates programme are treated more favourably than students who have changed countries outside the Community scheme or under an inter-university agreement. It goes without saying that such students are still covered by the principle of equal treatment in terms of admission conditions, with exemption from the requirement to pay any enrolment fee. In addition, though, they continue to receive grants or other forms of financial assistance from their country of origin, regardless of the general rules or any obstacles in the country in question concerning the transferability of grants. As regards recognition of periods of training completed in an establishment in another country, the Community legislation governing the programme requires that this be provided for in the form of agreements between the university of origin and the host university. Such recognition is not necessarily guaranteed where study periods or training periods are not wi thin the scope of the Socrates/Erasmus programme. The conditions set out in a. above constitute a minimum set of rights which apply to all students who do not enjoy a broader status under Community law. For instance, where a student is classified as a worker or as a child of a Community worker, the principle of equal treatment applies to other aspects of academic life as well, i. education in France :: essays research papers The education system in France: (source: European Union) I. Information on Community Law II. Information concerning the national education system III. Useful addresses I. Information on Community Law The fundamental principle of non-discrimination on grounds of nationality between students studying in a foreign country and national students applies as regards admission to an educational or training establishment. This includes enrolment fee requirements and the conditions governing the award of a grant to cover such fees. In this respect, any Community citizen must be treated in the same way as national citizens. One example of the kind of problem which young people studying another country may encounter would be special requirements on admission, the need to pass tests or supply documentary evidence, or other such conditions which are not required of nationals, and which have no objective justification. Each Member State's law provides for financial assistance for students in higher education. Some countries' laws may make it possible for a grant to be transferred where a student decides to study in another country. In other words, the student may continue to receive financial aid from his/her country of origin while studying in another Member State. Students covered by the Erasmus chapter of the Socrates programme are treated more favourably than students who have changed countries outside the Community scheme or under an inter-university agreement. It goes without saying that such students are still covered by the principle of equal treatment in terms of admission conditions, with exemption from the requirement to pay any enrolment fee. In addition, though, they continue to receive grants or other forms of financial assistance from their country of origin, regardless of the general rules or any obstacles in the country in question concerning the transferability of grants. As regards recognition of periods of training completed in an establishment in another country, the Community legislation governing the programme requires that this be provided for in the form of agreements between the university of origin and the host university. Such recognition is not necessarily guaranteed where study periods or training periods are not wi thin the scope of the Socrates/Erasmus programme. The conditions set out in a. above constitute a minimum set of rights which apply to all students who do not enjoy a broader status under Community law. For instance, where a student is classified as a worker or as a child of a Community worker, the principle of equal treatment applies to other aspects of academic life as well, i.

Wealth Management Investment

Wealth management is a crucial component in investing. It is a process that entails steps that organize the fundamental features of building a portfolio. An investor can deal with the uncertainty of financial markets; the uncertainty that markets were volatile last year, that they are volatile now, and that they will be volatile tomorrow, by regularly managing wealth. The wealth management process provides a strategic approach to managing and building wealth and will help an investor turn his client†s goals into reality. In managing the investment process investors must determine their objectives, the resources for achieving them, and the process to go through to get there. Most importantly, it is essential for clients to be exposed to any new investment procedure or opportunity in the context of their individualized investment policy. The first step in the wealth management process is to establish objectives. This step includes analyzing the current situation, where all factors that may have a bearing on the decisions should be identified, analyzed, and integrated into the process (Brown, Underwood 248). Before making any financial recommendations an investor must build a detailed financial profile so that he can understand the client†s personal balance sheet, his current asset allocation, and help the client develop his investment parameters. The result of this process is attaining the assessment of the investor†s goals. With this, it is critical for the client to express five key factors: his total financial picture, his financial goals and objectives, his feelings and tolerance for risk, his time horizon associated with each of his goals, and if the client is building his wealth, preserving it, or passing it on to others (Brown, Underwood 247). Proper objectives will be established by these factors through the individualized analysis of the client†s current situation. The second important step in the wealth management process is to set a strategy. This is attained subsequent to the client assessing his goals. In setting a strategy an investor will compare fundamental investment principles to a client†s goals. The client may consider five key fundamental principles when developing his portfolio strategy: Asset allocation, diversification, planning, discipline, and patience (Groppelli, Nikbakht 401). This step also helps the client to select appropriate asset classes and distributions. A portfolio†s asset mix or asset allocation refers to the percentages that are invested in various asset classes, such as domestic stocks, domestic bonds, cash, real estate, international stocks, international bonds, and so on. A selection of well-diversified assets within these classes is perhaps the most effective way to manage volatility and portfolio risk in today†s markets. The investor should work with his client to identify the investor profile that fits his objectives and tolerance for risk. The second step of wealth management also includes determining the time horizon of investment objectives. One must consider the timing of the possible unexpected as well as expected requirements for use of the portfolio†s assets. Market timing can be an unreliable and hazardous practice. Missing only a fraction of time can have a profound impact on value (Groppelli, Nikbakht 392). An investor can also help a client determine a financial plan to address his goals. In order for a client to make informed decisions and ultimately reach his goals, the investor should help translate the client†s goals and objectives into a personalized financial plan. This will help the client to organize his finances, where it will provide a clear picture of his financial situation, and help the client to understand how his financial puzzle fits together. He will have the accessibility to evaluate his short and long-range goals and see how each piece of his financial puzzle can influence the other interlocking pieces. With this personalized plan, a client may also find solutions by putting his strategies into action by providing access to specialists in various financial disciplines, such as trust, credit, asset management, business planning, and insurance. Lastly, this step will help the client to uncover opportunities, where he can identify opportunities that could influence his overall financial well-being. The third step in the wealth management process is to implement solutions. An investor can help the client select and implement financial solutions according to his financial plan and asset allocation strategy. The essential ways an investor can achieve this is by helping the client identify financial strategies and solutions, allocate his funds, select investment products, and managers, and develop a rebalancing strategy (Conley, O†Barr 42-44). To meet a client†s goals the investor can explore and help a client execute appropriate investment borrowing. Depending on the client†s needs, an investor can explore various strategies. These strategies include investing from retirement, wealth transfer and estate-planning strategies, tax-minimization strategies, company stock option planning, managing concentrated stock positions, alternative investments, and other personalized solutions. An investor should also allocate the assets based upon the client†s specific goals and risk tolerance, and he should select a money manager by using specialists. This construction would result in a customized plan and solution for the client and his long-term objectives. The final step in the wealth management process is to review the progress. An investor must continue to monitor the client†s situation in order to remain current with his goals in relation to the movement in the market. This ongoing service would include monitoring portfolio performance and results to evaluate progress, reviewing objectives and strategies periodically, and altering and adjusting the client†s wealth management strategies based on changing goals, circumstances, or conditions (Conley, O†Barr 45). In addition, it consists of monitoring the resulting performance of selected money managers. An effective monitoring program should provide the investor with sufficient information to evaluate the program†s strengths and weaknesses, and to keep the program on track in achieving the portfolio†s objectives. The truly effective investor realizes that a crucial element of the decision-making process is establishing appropriate performance measurement standards. The standards for provide an ongoing monitoring service for clients includes facilitating good investor-money manager communications and confirming the mutually agreed-upon goals of the investment policy. Also, an investor must show whether the assets are being managed as directed by that policy with respect to the portfolio†s risk tolerance and expected return. Another measurement is to support the qualitative judgments about the continued confidence, or lack of it, in the money manager†s abilities. The last measurement standard is to support the periodic consideration of the continuing appropriateness of the investment policy. In the monitoring process, there are issues that should be addressed at specific times. Monthly, investors should analyze their custodian†s appraisal report containing the current market value of holdings and the previous month†s transactions and expenses. Particular attention should be paid to transactions initiated by hired money managers and compared against the manager†s stated investment strategy. Quarterly, the investor should compare the asset allocation of the portfolio and the performance of hired money managers to benchmarks, and at least annually, there should be a formal review to determine whether investment objectives have been attained or have changed. The investor should be particularly sensitive of the need to determine whether the investment strategy still holds the highest probability of meeting short-term liquidity needs and long-term objectives. The role of the investor is to maximize the benefits to be gained from the wealth management process. The degree of commitment to the necessary tasks outlined in the process will ultimately determine investment success. It will be the actions of the investor that will have the greatest impact on the value of the portfolio and mastering the wealth management process will assist the investor in creating the greatest outcome for his clients and their futures.

George W. Bush essays

George W. Bush essays During his time in office, President George W. Bush has led the American people through trials and hardships unseen since Franklin D. Roosevelts presidency: An attack on American soil. Through his devotion to the safety of America in the War on Terrorism, as well as his attention to key domestic issues, the President has continued to fight hard for our countrys democratic ideals. Standing firm on his beliefs in what is best for the American public, President Bush exemplifies a qualified candidate for reelection this Fall. In addition to foreign policy, Affirmative action, Abortion, Stem-cell research, Capital punishment, and Patients Rights are particular items on his agenda with which I agree. Through fund-raisers, bill-signing, and early legislation, President Bush has continually battled on these issues in a compassionate, conservative manner I find particularly appealing. One of the more publicized and controversial issues to be confronted during the 2004 elections is affirmative action. The way many institutions, particularly universities, use affirmative action to decide acceptance for enrollment is unjust and degrading to the academic merit of the applicant. Affirmative action was first created in the 1920's as a way to minimize the number of Jewish students entering the universities, on claims that because so many were from the same ethnic origins, they did not bring enough diversity to campus (Hartigan Shea, 47). More recently, it has been used to help African Americans, Hispanics, and American Indians get accepted into the modern university. These institutions have preferences for minorities because they want to diversify their student bodies. Such preferences for the student are not what an academic institution should be concerned with. Acceptance to college should be based more on scholastic merit instead of the color of ones skin. As President Bush once said, We can have af...

Comparative and Superlatives for Beginners

Comparative and Superlatives for Beginners The comparative and superlative forms in English compare and contrast different objects in English.   Basketball is more exciting than golf.That house is bigger than mine. Our friends have the nicest dog in the town.She is the happiest person I know. Comparative Form   Use the comparative form to show the difference between two objects. Examples: New York is more exciting than Seattle.His car is faster than Dougs.Mary is happier than Anna.   1 syllable adjective + -er She is faster than Mary. 2 + syllables more + adjective Jack is more handsome than Jerry. 2 syllables ending in -y drop -y from adjective +-ier That joke was funnier than mine. Comparative Form Comparative Form Explained One Syllable Adjectives Add -er to end of the adjective (Note: double the final consonant if preceded by a vowel) remove the y from the adjective and add ier Examples:  Ã‚  slow - slower / high - higher This book is cheaper than that book.Tom is smarter than Derrick.   Two Syllable Adjectives Ending in -y Drop -y and add -ier to two syllable adjectives ending in -y. Note adjectives ending in -y that are three syllables or more take more rather than -ier.   Example:  happy - happier / funny - funnier I am happier than you.That joke was funnier than his joke. Two, Three or More Syllable Adjectives place more before the adjective Examples:  interesting - more interesting / difficult - more difficult London is more expensive than Madrid.This test is more difficult than the last test. Here is another chart showing how to construct the  comparative form  in English.   Superlative Form Use the superlative form when speaking about three or more objects to show which object is the most of something. Examples: New York is the most exciting city in the USA.Peter is the luckiest guy in the world.Thats the cleanest bathroom Ive ever seen! 1 syllable the + adjective + add -est That's the tallest building in New York. 2+ syllables the most + adjective Alice is the most interesting woman I've ever met. 2 syllables ending in -y drop -y from adjective +-iest Peter is the funniest guy in my class. Superlative Form Superlative Form Explained One Syllable Adjectives Place the before the adjective and add -est to end of the adjective (Note: double the final consonant if preceded by a vowel) Example: cheap - the cheapest / hot - the hottest / high - the highest Today is the hottest day of the summer.This book is the cheapest I can find. Two, Three or More Syllable Adjectives Place the most before the adjective Example: interesting - the most interesting / difficult - the most difficult London is the most expensive city in England.That is the most beautiful painting here. Two Syllable Adjectives Ending in -y place the before the adjective and remove the y from the adjective and add iest Example: happy - the happiest / funny - the funniest New York is the noisiest city in the USA.He is the most important person I know. Here is a chart showing how to construct the  superlative form  in English: Important Exceptions There are some important exceptions to these rules! Here are two of the most important exceptions: good good - adjectivebetter - comparativethe best - superlative This book is better than that one.This is the best school in the city. bad bad - adjectiveworse - comparativethe worst - superlative His French is worse than mine.This is the worst day of my life. Teachers can use this comparative and superlative lesson plan to teach these forms to learners. Start from the basics.

Leonardo Da Vinci1 essays

Leonardo Da Vinci1 essays Leonardo Da Vinci was born in 1452 on his fathers estate in Vinci, Italy. He received his education on the estate until the age of fifteen. Which is when his father had noticed Leonardos potential and had decided to send him to be an apprentice to the artist Andrea del Verrocchio in Florence. There he studied sculpture and the mechanical arts. This was also when he first developed an interest in anatomy. In 1472 Leonardo was accepted into the painters' guild at Florence, where he remained for the next ten years. In 1482, Leonardo was hired by the duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza, to be artist and engineer in residence. During his stay in Milan, he started to compose a unified theory of the world and to illustrate it in a series of voluminous notebooks. Unfortunately due to his pursuit of scientific knowledge he had to leave many of his artistic creations unfinished. He stayed in Milan for seventeen years. There he completed six paintings: two portraits of the 'Last Supper', two ver sions of 'The Virgin of the Rocks', and a decorative ceiling painting in the Castello Sforzesco. Other paintings were either unfinished or have disappeared. In the early 1500s, Leonardo returned to his home city. In Florence, he was commissioned to do a number of paintings, but other interests and tasks kept him from finishing them. The most well known piece to survive from this time period was the famous "Mona Lisa", which is now in the Louvre in Paris. For ten months during 1502, Leonardo served as military adviser and engineer. During the years 1513 to 1516, Leonardo was in Rome at the invitation of Cardinal Giuliano de' Medici, brother of Pope Leo X. Some of the greatest artists of the time were at work in Rome for the church. In May 1506 Charles d'Amboise, governor of Milan for the king of France, invited Leonardo to return to that city. His work in painting and sculpture over the next seven years remained mostly in the plan ...

Video case Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Video case - Coursework Example As a result, it has been able to build a good PR by offering consumers with products and services that best suit them and at the same time create good relationships with the companies. Groupon has used the power of the media to grow its reputation and gain trust among consumers and businesses. Groupon has also used personal selling effectively in selling its products and services. For example, through phone calls and emails, the company has been able to reach out to a number of businesses throughout the country. Groupon uses word of mouth to understand some of the best places where consumers can be directed. Through this, the company is able to offer the best deals. In addition, by using review sites such as Yelp and Citysearch, Groupon is able to get the best deals for consumers and get the best businesses to partner with. There is a difference in how Groupon markets itself to consumers versus how it does to businesses and companies. When marketing itself to businesses and companies, Groupon relies on personal interactions and through telephone. This is different when marketing itself to consumers since it is mainly done through the internet. In other words, in order to reach out to businesses, it heavily relies on its sales force to interact with potential companies. This is done through phone calls and emails. However, when reaching out to consumers, the Groupon uses social media and the internet to reach out to consumers. In addition, unlike businesses, Groupon relies on the word of mouth through conversations between consumers to market itself. This is because consumers interact with each other and thus help to market the company to friends and relatives. Business may find it necessary to adapt the promotional mix because of the different tastes and preferences in the market. Therefore, businesses need to adapt the promotional mix in order to meet the demands of the

Nutrition Discussions 6-9 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Nutrition Discussions 6-9 - Assignment Example ery important information on any form of diagnosed and any undiagnosed abnormality in the growth, overweight, obesity, development and the many risk factors prone to its citizens. Environmental factors are put into consideration as to determine what are the citizens are exposed to. These surveys are necessary as they are conducted to determine the missing link in the welfare of the citizens. This includes quality check of life from the young to the old. This must be encouraged year after year and all the necessary information dispensed to the nation at large including the social media facilities at our countries disposal, (Nieman, National dietary and Nutrition Surveys). Energy is measured in values termed as kilocalories (kcals).This energy is obtained from food that human beings consume. A lot of research has been done to determine the caloric value in the various type of food human take. To determine the food caloric value, one needs to classify the content of food in terms of carbohydrate, fat and protein values. It has been noted that carbohydrates give 4kcal per given gram (g), proteins giving the same value of 4 kcal and fats having recorded the highest at 9 kcal, (Stanfield, Meeting Energy Needs in Nutrition and Diet Therapy: Self-Instructional Modules). The quest to determine energy needs is done on three major classifications that is activity, thermic effect on food, and basal metabolic rate. The basal metabolism is the energy required to drive the vital life procedures in a human being and is positive or negatively affected by; physiological status, body temperature, body composition, age and sex. Physical activity burns out calories while mental work does much lesser. Production of heat after having meals brings thermic effect; this largely depends on the type of food taken, (Stanfield, Meeting Energy Needs in Nutrition and Diet Therapy: Self-Instructional Modules). This energy intake needs to be balanced. It’s very important to maintain the energy

Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder ADHD Essay

Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder ADHD - Essay Example One of my key findings is that Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder is a psychiatric disorder that has been diagnosed in nearly 5% of children in the world. The disease is currently considered to be a serious issue of public health concern in many parts of the world and has affected the societies and families in a number of ways. According to Wilens and Dodson (2004), the affected individuals usually have difficulties in their interpersonal relationships and do not perform well in schools. Conducting a psychiatric assessment is one of the main methods of diagnosis although laboratory tests can also be used. My research has significantly enabled me to have a better understanding of my daughter who has been suffering from Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder. Consequently this will improve my coping skills and enhance my contributions towards her behavioral and normal medical interventions in her condition. For example as a parent, this research has improved my understanding of the significance of providing family therapy and parental assistance to the affected children like my

Persuasive Custom Speech on Legalization of Marijuana in California or Presentation

Persuasive Custom on Legalization of Marijuana in California - Speech or Presentation Example Today's marijuana users are not Otto the bus driver, smoking a joint while driving past imaginary purple elephants. They are not deadbeats hanging onto the fringe of society. They are average men and women, many of them diligent students, community business owners, and even civic leaders (NORML). Are these people criminals? No! They are simply good people caught on the bad side of a poorly-written, poorly-planned, and poorly-executed public policy. California is known as the cutting edge of social change. The state is already at the forefront of the drug legalization debate, having legalized marijuana for medical use in 1996 (Secretary of State). This means the state already has experience in the regulation and distribution of marijuana legally, and makes it the perfect testing ground for the legalization of recreational marijuana. Medical marijuana has been found to be more effective on a wider variety of symptoms and to be safer, with fewer side effects, than Marinol, an artificial cannaboid medication (Joy, Watson, & Benson, p 203). There has been no evidence that the legalization of medical marijuana in the state has increased recreational usage, and the passage of this law saved thousands of legitimate disease sufferers from being banded as criminals.

Marketing Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Marketing Research - Essay Example One of the primary goals of marketing research is identifying and assessing how the varying elements of the marketing mix impact on customer behavior. Marketing research falls into two categories depending on target market: consumer marketing research and business-to-business marketing research. Discussion The marketing research process covers a round of stages such as collection, organization, and interpretation of data. The designing of a research plan is a multifaceted endeavor as it involves decisions such as the data sources to employ, approaches to take, how to minimize distortions to the data collected, the research instruments to employ, the configuration of the sampling plan, methodology, and adherence to research ethics. A marketing research planning process incorporates a series of interconnected stages and each stage has an impact on the stage preceding or subsequent to it. Stages of a Marketing Research Plan Stage 1: Defining Research Problem The first stage in a marketi ng research plan involves identification of the problem or marketing issue (need). This stage comes after review of the business situation (Wild & Diggines 50). The starting phase of the research plan spotlights the reason or the research problem. When defining the problem, the researcher ought to construct an appropriate marketing research design. The problem should not be too narrow but should embrace the pertinent issues that the research seeks to capture. It is critical to obtain coherent insight into the nature, scope, and intensity of the problem prior to the formulation of the problem. The stated problem should reflect the organization’s resources and should be expressed in a manner that plainly identifies the sought opportunity (Housden 71). The problem in this case encompasses positioning of the new phone in the market. Outlining the Research Objective The researcher should justify the need for research as well as defining the objective of the research (Prasuraman & Krishnan 26). Outlining the research objective is crucial and the researcher needs to evaluate what he or she seeks to find out and why. In addition, the researcher should identify the data needed as well as the data sources. This entails scrutinizing the research purpose and highlighting the data required to complete the purpose (Prasuraman, Grewal, & Krishnan 33). Research objective entails goals to be achieved by conducting research. One of the objectives may be exploring some new product in the market. Diverse research objectives lead to diverse research designs (Wild & Diggine 51). Stage 2: Planning Research Design The second stage encompasses determining the research design to be employed. Picking out of the appropriate methodology is crucial to the overall success of the marketing research. The research method to be adopted depends on the research philosophy that has been employed. The designing of the research instrument is also crucial (Zikmund & Babin 51). Stage3: Planning Sample The third stage of a research plan incorporates defining the sample. The identification of the sample incorporates specifying who or which units should avail the data needed (Prasuraman & Krishnan 37). This stage lays the ground for designing of the sample. The stage encompasses instituting a problem solving framework and analytical models guided by the defined audience. The

The Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The - Research Proposal Example 337). The style further requires no tangible initiatives (Ledlow and Coppola 2013, p. 73). Transformational leadership however identifies simulations, could be suitable for industries with technical applications, and associated change target not only followers but also the organizations (Ricketson 2008, p. 18; Lussier and Achua 2009, p. 354). Transactional leaders are however go getters who inspire followers towards set targets (Bertocci 2009, p. 48). The approach has such factors as rewards and punishment and may not be suitable for sensitive industries that also focus on quality rather than quantity (Daenzer 2009, p. 40). The health care industry is an example in which the style may leads to mistakes that may threaten lives from resultant services. The research is organized into five sections. The first section offers background information into the study, rationale, and objectives. The second section reviews literature on the subject and identifies knowledge gap while the third section discusses the study’s methodology. The forth section will offer results while the fifth section will discuss the results and offer its implications. Situational Leadership II model offers the basis for the proposed study. According to the model, ability to manage a relationship between a leaders and a follower determines leadership success and identifies the role of the environment to dictate leadership styles. Difference in environments, based on industries and associated scopes of work, then suggests a situational approach to leadership based on industries (Pitman 2009, p. 207; Blanchard 2009, p. 182). According to the model, need for support and direction, that may vary by both industry and organization develops the need for situational leadership. â€Å"Delegating leadership style† and self-reliance are for example suitable for

Persuasive Custom Speech on Legalization of Marijuana in California or Presentation

Persuasive Custom on Legalization of Marijuana in California - Speech or Presentation Example Today's marijuana users are not Otto the bus driver, smoking a joint while driving past imaginary purple elephants. They are not deadbeats hanging onto the fringe of society. They are average men and women, many of them diligent students, community business owners, and even civic leaders (NORML). Are these people criminals? No! They are simply good people caught on the bad side of a poorly-written, poorly-planned, and poorly-executed public policy. California is known as the cutting edge of social change. The state is already at the forefront of the drug legalization debate, having legalized marijuana for medical use in 1996 (Secretary of State). This means the state already has experience in the regulation and distribution of marijuana legally, and makes it the perfect testing ground for the legalization of recreational marijuana. Medical marijuana has been found to be more effective on a wider variety of symptoms and to be safer, with fewer side effects, than Marinol, an artificial cannaboid medication (Joy, Watson, & Benson, p 203). There has been no evidence that the legalization of medical marijuana in the state has increased recreational usage, and the passage of this law saved thousands of legitimate disease sufferers from being banded as criminals.

The Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The - Research Proposal Example 337). The style further requires no tangible initiatives (Ledlow and Coppola 2013, p. 73). Transformational leadership however identifies simulations, could be suitable for industries with technical applications, and associated change target not only followers but also the organizations (Ricketson 2008, p. 18; Lussier and Achua 2009, p. 354). Transactional leaders are however go getters who inspire followers towards set targets (Bertocci 2009, p. 48). The approach has such factors as rewards and punishment and may not be suitable for sensitive industries that also focus on quality rather than quantity (Daenzer 2009, p. 40). The health care industry is an example in which the style may leads to mistakes that may threaten lives from resultant services. The research is organized into five sections. The first section offers background information into the study, rationale, and objectives. The second section reviews literature on the subject and identifies knowledge gap while the third section discusses the study’s methodology. The forth section will offer results while the fifth section will discuss the results and offer its implications. Situational Leadership II model offers the basis for the proposed study. According to the model, ability to manage a relationship between a leaders and a follower determines leadership success and identifies the role of the environment to dictate leadership styles. Difference in environments, based on industries and associated scopes of work, then suggests a situational approach to leadership based on industries (Pitman 2009, p. 207; Blanchard 2009, p. 182). According to the model, need for support and direction, that may vary by both industry and organization develops the need for situational leadership. â€Å"Delegating leadership style† and self-reliance are for example suitable for

The Intellectual Challenge Essay Example for Free

The Intellectual Challenge Essay The intellectual challenge was equally unprecedented. From the beginning of the modern age, there were significant segments of the intellegentsia which did not content themselves with any of the newly fashioned apologies for Judaism. They accepted the ideals of the outside liberalism, nationalism, and, later, socialism not because they had supposedly originated in Judaism but because they had not. What made these values attractive was that they promised to fashion a new secular world which would transcend and destroy all aspects of medievalism. The assimilationists, those Jews who consciously strove to give up their own identity entirely in order to become undifferentiated individuals in the modern world, were thus truly messianic. The very completeness and unconditionality of their surrender to the dominant values of the majority were a program for the final solution of the Jewish question: let the Jew become like everybody else, yielding up his claim to chosenness and being relieved of his role as scapegoat. Let society run on its universal and immutable principles, rooted in reason and natural law, which know neither positive nor negative exceptions for the Jew. Above all, let him disappear from the center of the stage, his own and the worlds, to be one among many equally important small incidents in the history of mankind. This was a kind of messianism that could have arisen only out of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment, for it was fundamentally at variance with both the Jewish and the Christian concepts of such an age. Jew is equally important to the traditional Christian version of the end of days: he is not chosen but damned, but that is negative chosenness; he is doomed to wandering and suffering, because he once rejected Jesus, but the indispensable preamble to the Second Coming and the end of days is his conversion. It is beyond doubt that the long-standing Christian desire to convert the Jews was a significant aspect of the climate of opinion toward the end of the eighteenth century which prepared the ground for their emancipation. Liberal Christians believed that this would be a short cut to the devoutly desired result. So the Abbe Gregoire, the leader of this school of thought in revolutionary France, argued in a famous essay written in 1787 and published two years later, as the delegates were gathering to the meeting of the Estates-General in Paris, that the granting of religious liberty to the Jews would be a great step forward in reforming and in converting them, for truth is most persuasive when it is gentle. Â   What is even more apparent is that many of the philosophies of the Enlightenment, despite the ethical universalism and the vague deism or atheism in religion with which they were consciously subverting Christianity, were most reluctant to part with old-fashioned anti-Semitism. In fear of censorship and the Bastille, they may, indeed, have had to shoot their arrows of ridicule at Moses instead of the Apostles, in order to conduct their war against the Church in Aesopian language; but there is an edge and a nastiness to Voltaires comments on the Jews, an insistence that it is hardly conceivable that even reason can reform them, which sets one of the patterns for modern anti-Semitism: to uphold a universal and secular ideal e. g. , liberalism, nationalism, or socialism but to exclude the Jews from its purview and effect. Nonetheless, at its most ideologically consistent, the Enlightenment proposed full acceptance of the Jew in the new society of which it dreamed. His faults which even pro-Jewish writers like Dohm, Mirabeau, and Gregoire waxed eloquent in describing were, they maintained, not innate but caused by his unfortunate estate, and his claims to chosenness could be disregarded as a psychological defense the Jew found it necessary to cultivate to relieve the misery of his enslavement. All this would disappear, transmuted into good civisme even among this, the most difficult group to usher into the life of the modern world, once all of society is reformed. It is therefore true, as Nordau once observed that the Emancipation came to the Jews not out of humanitarian fervor, not as a reconciliation of age-old conflicts, but for the sake of the abstractions, reason and natural law. But the Jewish enthusiasts of assimilation chose to overlook that the Emancipation was not essentially conceived out of tender regard for the Jews: they preferred to accept it with passion as the totally messianic era that it purported to be.

Malaria: Causes, Effects and Cures

Malaria: Causes, Effects and Cures Solving a Biological Problem Summary The chapter is about the methodology that is involved in exploring some understanding toward solving a biological problem while doing research in quest. With citation of example of malaria as a problem along with historical stage involved towards gradual understanding related to its causes leading to the findings to its cure and preventions, an attempt was made to present the approach that has been involved in addressing the scientific issues in past. A practical approach that is possible to conduct practically at school level to get the students introduced with research at elementary level and built up some interest in students has been presented in the following chapter. Mathematical and statistical tools that are needed in research have been introduced to analyze the data obtained by using research methodology (hypothetical) to arrive on conclusions about certain aspects of the issues related to malaria to accept, discard or modify the hypothesis on a scientific query. Introduction The human being started putting efforts to explore the world around him right from very beginning. The history is full of examples that show that early human being somehow recorded their opinion about different thing. With passage of time, human beings learnt to evaluate the correctness of their thoughts and opinion on any scientific issue, by setting some experiments, drawing conclusion (hypothesis) based on results, verification of hypothesis by other experiments and reporting it. Research methodology is latest approach involving these procedures to address a scientific problem. Steps involved in Biological Research Procedure Identification of a problem Sufferings of mankind that includes diseases, scarcity of food shelter, utilities etc or related matters are the existing problems from biological origin. To initiate research in an area a problem in a particular area is identified. There can be a wide range of problems e.g. an approach to find a cure for newly emerging disease, find a more effective drug for a curable disease, increase the shelf life of a product etc. Generation of hypothesis Available understanding on an issue that is published in scientific journals is used to draw logical opinion, hypothesis, underlying the biological processes and indicate possibilities that can lead to the management of the problem. There are often more than one hypothesis available for a given scientific query. Usually one hypothesis is being testified by given experiments. (a) Shelf life of chadder cheese increases with increase in number of yeast cells present into it. (b) Quality of spinach deteriorates with increase in rate of transpiration. (c) The rate of decrease in microbial population in a food sample in response of heat treatment at 600C is inversely proportional to its total organic content. Laboratory safety Procedures Every type of biological experimentation should comply with necessary safety procedures that ensures the safety of professionals involved in conducting the experiments and other people. That includes use of special clothing e.g. coats, gloves head cover spectacles etc. All the biological material is carried or grown in specially designed containers that ensure no risk for leakage that can be hazards for other people who can come in contact. All the biological material is heated at 121oC under pressure at 15 psi to kill all type of cells before discarding it whereas chemical agents are discarded as mentioned in safety manuals. Experiment Design Experimentation is a practical approach for investigation a scientific query leading to generation of observations called data. A same question can be investigated by using different experimental approaches. The selection of an experimental design mainly depends upon time required, extent of precision, availability of resources etc. Each experiment design has got some limitations and it is important to ensure that the selected experiment design can optimize for investigating the required scientific query. Each experiment is design by usually changing a variable. In order to test a given hypothesis, experiments are set, usually in triplicate and experiments are repeated at least three times to ensure reproducibility of the data. To avoid adding error in the data it is important to set negative and positive control for a given experiment. Positive control has an ingredient instead of ingredient to be test that should positive result when is added in the reagents and processed as per standard method of experiment in given conditions. On other hand Negative control is set same as positive control but has water or other solvent added instead of reagent to be tested. It is very important that selection of sample that is used in the experiment should be random. It is important to ensure that all the experiments should be done at the same conditions. All those factors that can contribute to add errors should be taken care of. Data Collection and analysis Observations can be collected after completion of experiments or while they are in progress depending on nature of experiments. The data is not always a integral values but can be visual observations that can be recorded by photography. The data is usually recorded with appropriate units in tabular form. This is known as raw data. Every data has some error added into it. Mathematic and statistics an integral part of Biological Analysis The observations that are collected as numerical value after experiments comprise raw data. Mathematical or statistical methods are used to minimize the effect of errors present into it the raw data. The most widely and commonly statistical method that is used to decrease error in data is finding an average in any given readings. Beside that mathematical or statistical tools are used to deduce a logical ground based on numerical value to support, modify or discard any scientific opinion (hypothesis) that is built up on earlier reported scientific findings Use of ratio proportion and percentage Data is analyzed by using mathematical or statistical tools, most commonly that are used include ratio and percentage, for finding an effect of changing a variable on other parameters in a given set of condition. If a numerical variable ‘a’ represents intensity of a biological event that needs to be compared with intensity of another similar event represented by numerical variable ‘b’ then ratios are taken out Ratio between intensity of two biological events = a (equation 1) b In order to represent this comparison on scale of 100, percentage of ratio between variables are taken out The general formula for percentage is given as below %= Ratio between two numerical variable x100(equation 2) Substitute equation 1 in general formula of percentage as shown by equation 2 Percent % (ratio between intensity of two biological events) ={ a }x 100 (eq 3) b Usually biological data can comprise of in a range of very small value to very large and hence it is important to convert it on Log10. The general formula for expressing any numerical variable is shown by equation 4 as follow Number(N) on Log 10 scale= Log10(N) (equation 4) Substitute equation 3 into equation 4 Log 10(ratio between intensity of two biological events) =Log10 { a x 100}(eq 5) b Technical limitation associated with use of Log10 scale While expressing any data on Log10 the difficulty arises when it is needed to express integral 0 on Log10 scale (Log10(0)=infinity). In order to cope with this difficulty 1 or any fraction of number that falls within permissible limit of error (10 scale. In later stages the data can easily be plotted on any type of graphs as discussed in later part of this chapter. Significance of error in decision making and predictions on biological data Every data collected has certain extent of error present into it depending upon experimentation design, procedures and method of taking observations. This error needs to be evaluated before using the data for testing any hypothesis, decision making or predictions. It is defined as tentative variation on negative and positive scale in a set of observations from actual value. The actual numerical value of a biological effect is (B). An experiment was done to note this biological effect. The experiment was repeated N times e.g. (N1 N2 N3 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Nt) to showing observations B as (B1 B2 B3†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.Bt) respectively. The first stage in calculation the error is to find an average The general formula for Average is Average = sum of numerical values of individual observation eq 6 Number of times the observation was taken Substitute the values in equation 6 Average ={B1+ B2+†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.Bt} eq 7 {Nt} Sum of values of observations ={B1+ B2+†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.Bt}is shown by S{B} No of times the experiment was repeated {Nt} ={N} Substitute the value in equations in equation 7 Average= S{B} equation 8 {N} Lets value of Average be represented by X Substitute in equation 7 Average = X Second stage is to find the difference between each numerical value of observation and Average = B1-X, B2-XBt-X, Third stage is to square each of the difference =B1-X)2,(B2-X)2, (B3-X)2(Bt-X)2 Fourth stage is to add the square of differences =(B1-X)2+(B2-X)2+(Bt-X)2 Fifth stage is to divide square sum of difference of average of individual numerical variable with number of observations e.g N =S(B1-X)2,( B2-X)2,†¦..(Bt-X)2 N Standard deviation or Error is obtained by taking square root of the quotient obtained by dividing the square sum of difference between the average and the individual numerical variable with number of observations. =√S(B1-X)2,( B2-X)2,†¦..(Bt-X)2 N It is an integral value that is expressed, as on negative as well as positive scale e.g if error calculated is 3 then it would be +3 as well as –3. It represents a range within which actual value may lie. In olden days, such calculations were done with the help of calculator but now same work can be done more easily by using different software e.g. excel with computer as a tool. It is often very different to understand the effect underlying in any biological data by merely looking at numerical values. The different types of graphs are used for visual presentation of effect by trends available in data The most commonly types of graphs that are used for the presentation of data are given in figure 2.The same data for different sample e.g. A, B, C is presented on percentage scale by using horizontal and vertical bars whereas error is shown by error bars .Another set of data for sample D, E, F was presented by line graph. Data analysis to decide the status of hypothesis After the mathematical and statistical treatment of raw data a logical ground built up by comparing certain numerical values or more often represented on graphs to accept, modify or reject any hypothesis. In order to test the hypothesis â€Å"The rate of decrease in microbial population in a food sample in response of heat treatment at 600C is inversely proportional to its total organic, 100 cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae were inoculated in same volume in mediums with concentration as X, 3X and 70X respectively to make final concentration of each medium as 100 cells/ml.(Sample D contains 3X concentration medium, Sample E contains X concentration and Sample F contains 70X concentration). The medium were kept at 600C for 1104hours and cells were assayed for viability after 10 hrs, 100, hours, 1000hrs and 10000 hrs respectively. The viability being dependent value was plotted on a graph Y axis against the time in hours after expressing the value on Log 10 scale. Different data points taken on the graph are sufficiently scattered and can not be joined by a straight line accommodating all the point on it. The trend line can be drawn manually by accommodating maximum number of points and leaving as many point above the line as many are there below that line. Such a manually drawn line can not be used for any type of scientific predictions. Otherwise highly precise trend line for a given data can be drawn as explained in section given in the end of the chapter that can be used for making decisions on a given hypothesis and for making predictions. The error bars extending on positive as well as negative scale in same magnitude of Y scale is plotted against each observation. The observation that were taken in this experiment are shown as graphs in Figure 2 e.g. Sample D, E and F were presented by using line graphs on Log 10 scale. The trend lines are introduced to show the type of dependency of one parameter on another. As already discussed earlier the biological data is often presented on Log 10 scale to observe the effects in broader prospective and ignore the slight changes especially when study is made on larger populations of samples e.g. cells with a wide range of variations. The data show that sample D and E has got similar trend (with an increase in variable on X axis, there is a decrease on Y axis variable, Y axis is dependent on x axis and is inversely proportional to it) whereas in sample F, Y variable is independent of X variable as no change in Y variable is observed with an increase in X variable and this is evident by a straight trend line. The conclusion drawn as evident by three graphs that number of viable yeast cells were found to decrease with passage of time when concentration of organic content in medium was X in sample E or 3X in sample D that is represented by a slopes in respective graphs. But this effect was found to be lost when organic concentration was raised to 70X in sample F and that is. This experiment supports the hypothesis â€Å" The rate of decrease in microbial population in a food sample in response of heat treatment at 600C is inversely proportional to its total organic content†. If reported literature indicate some other type of experiments done to check the same hypothesis then results are compared and reason of the variations if there are any are discussed with scientific reference and is reported in a scientific journal. Research Methodology Theory accepted Modification in hypothesis Publication in scientific Journals Discarding above hypothesis Supporting above hypothesis Results interpretation Different Hypotheses Data analysis Data collection Experimental design for a given hypothesis Literature reported in related area Identification of Biological Problem Interpretation of data The data that is obtained is interpreted to draw scientific conclusions. The reported literature is used to give explanation of the conclusion drawn. In the light of conclusion drawn either the hypothesis is accepted, rejected or is modified. If the hypothesis is proven correct with experiments, then it is known as a theory. Scientific articles based on proven hypothesis e.g. theory, disapproved or modified hypothesis are written by scientist involved in research and are sent for publication in scientific journals. Biological Problem as an example A school teacher planned an excursion for students and took paramedic staff equipped with sample collection facility to country side area to study the prevalence of any non contiguous disease in human beings and animals. Malaria is an example of non contiguous disease that is spread only by infected female mosquito is malaria and is a matter of great concern. As reported in newspapers and other literature there was a population of 100,000 people living with minimal facilities of life that on a huge natural water reservoir for drinking water. Recent heavy rain resulted in collection of water of stagnant water and much of this water in later stage drained in reservoir. The students prepared a report explaining how did they use biological methodology to study this case. a) Identification of problem Prevalence of certain incidences of disease symptoms similar to malaria in a given locality was identified as a biological problem. Students wrote the following note after referring the literature about malaria to get basic information about disease. Please refer the picture given below and the literature cited in later part of this chapter. From Mala aria ( bad air) to Malaria-over a period of time Malaria has been a matter of concerns since very beginning. Understanding about malaria has changed over a period of time. Initially it was considered to be caused by some supernatural power. Supported with the findings of higher incidences near the marshy area, malaria was thought to be caused by bad air that is found near marshy areas. With the emergence of germ theory malaria by Louis Pasteur (1852-1895) was thought to be caused by any bacteria. It is strongly believed until Charles Louis Alphonse Laveron (1845-1922) during microscopy of Blood from infected patients observed causative agent of malaria in 1880 and later on reported it to Academy of Medicine in Paris. Albert Freeman Africanus King (1841-1940) who was associated with George Washington University on basis of supporting reports presented the idea that mosquitoes are the mean of transmission of malaria (vector) and discarded the opinion that bad air in marshy area has any role in causing malaria. On basis of his data he suggested that proper netting can help to control the incidences of malaria in Washington. Ronald Ross (1857-1932) was a physician, who studied the life cycle of malarial parasite in mosquites e.g (different stages of parasite infection with a change in morphology) and its transfer to human beings and birds. In 1898 Giovanni Battista Grassi (1854-1925) on basis of understanding about malaria obtained by published literature set an experiment to infect a person who never had malaria (with his permission) in an area of Rome where there was not any case of malaria reported and mosquitoes were not found by exposing the person with Anopheles clavigar for ten night and later on patient developed the symptoms. On basis of his experiment he proved that malaria is spread by mosquitoes in human beings that carries the causative agent Plasmodium. The complete cycle of P. falciparum was observed by Grassi Bignami and Bastianelli in 1899 and the work has been published by Grassi in 1900. The life cycle of Plasmodium has three reproduction stages with different morphologies (shapes). The mosquitoes inject sporozoites in human being s skin that through blood goes to liver where they multiply and change into Merozoites.The second cycle of multiplication does into RBC. Some of the meroziotes after passing through reproductive cycle in RBC converts into gametocytes (male and female gemates) and enters in gut of mosquitoes when they suck blood from an infected human being where they undergo sexual reproduction to zygote which later on converts Oocyst. Oocyste after under going asexual reproduction burst to release newly formed sporozoites that enters in salivary gland of mosquitoes At the site students made a survey of that area and noted the initial observation with the help of photography. They found that not only human being but also the birds are affected by the disease Initial Findings They found that the reservoir (a) was associated with dark places where high populations of mosquitoes can be seen (b).Beside that a few sick birds were also found resting on ground. Diseased patients report to an increase in high fever with shivering that stays for some times and then fever become low or even normal with sweating or even without it. These symptoms are repeated with intervals and patient feels weakness. Initial findings support that the disease is malaria. b) On the basis of their initial findings the following hypothesis was built up. The disease may be Malaria and is caused by Plasmodium Experimentation Plasmodium infect the red blood cells. In order to established that diseased people are suffering from malaria at least 63 patients having disease were bled to collect blood samples. This type of sample that is under study is called as test sample. Blood were taken from at least 50 healthy who do not have any symptoms of disease. Since these people do not have any symptoms of disease it is very likely that Plasmodium may never be detected in their blood. Such a sample that is known to give a negative test is a called a negative control The blood and water samples were collected in collection tubes specially designed for this purpose. The fixed slides of infected Red Blood Cell (RBC) were purchased from the market and was taken as positive control. (a)The sample was not only collected from human beings but also from the diseased animals as well. That the blood of each sample was spread on a glass slide, fixed and stained with Giemsia and was observed under microscope. (b)Beside that the blood samples from infected people were inoculated (added) in RPMI-1640 medium (name of medium used for the growth of Plasmodium that also contain RBC) present in bottle and were incubated to grow causative agent of the disease under laboratory conditions. The sample from these bottles were observed under microscope for presence of Plasmodium after 72 hours of incubation. Furthermore, the surface water from stagnant regions of reservoir was collected in a container and was assayed for presence of larvae of mosquitoes with help of magnifying glass. Laboratory Safety Procedure All the containers having biological material was heated at 1210 C at 15 psi for 15 minutes to kill every type of living cells before discarding them. The chemical agents were discarded as described in their respective safety manuals Result Microscopy results show that the Red Blood Cell of diseased people were found to be infected with Plasmodium. The causative agent of the disease was successfully found to grow in the medium that supports the growth of Plasmodium (Figure 3) and that was confirmed by microscopy e.g Plasmodium were found in the sample from medium under microscope and slides observed were found similar as shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2 Plasmodium Figure 7 The blood sample after mixing with other reagent (as shown with white arrow indicating towards a tube) is then inoculated into the bottle ( as shown in picture) ( source Nature Protocols courtesy to Nature Publishing Group) The surface water samples that was taken from the stagnant water collected near water reservoir were found of have mosquitoes larvae in large number as is shown in Figure 4. Conclusion The results that includes, presence of large number of mosquitoes larvae near the site of outbreak, Plasmodium was found in the infected blood of diseased people, that was successfully grown in the medium and conditions specific confirm that the outbreak is of malaria that was caused by Plasmodium. Skill development to solve a Biological Problem Report A report comprising the incidences of malaria during the years 2002, 2003 and 2004, in three different cities was published in a newspaper. The patient were treated by using drug A and attempt to kill mosquitoes were made by spraying B into environment and adding in water collection. Out of these report related to three cities is given below. In Karachi 530 malarial cases were reported in year of 2002, 534760 in 2003 and 12345668 in 2004 respectively. The mortality reported in these years were 98 in 2002, 120001 in 2003 and 5408889 in 2004.The rain fall recorded in Karachi for year 2002 is 50mm, 2003 is 100 mm and 10,000 mm in 2004.The drug resistance was found in 12 cases in 2002, 60009 cases in 2003 and 9900099 cases in 2004. In 2002, 134 malarial cases were reported in Faisalabad where as in 2003 and 2004 the reported numbers were 1237 and 1379 respectively. The mortality reported in years 2002, 2003 and 2004 were 10, 99, 115 respectively. The annual rainfall reported in these years were 12 mm in 2002, 58 mm in 2003 and 89 mm in 2004.The antimalarial drug resistance was found to be in 2 cases in 2002 , 79 cases in 2003 and 91 cases in 2004. In a similar study that was conducted in Gilgit during these three years, it was found that malaria affected 325 people in 2002, 135 people in 2003 and 350 people in 2004.There were 10 people reported to be died of malarial disease in 2002, 8 people in 2003 and 17 people in 2004. The annual rainfall reported in these years were 130, 120, 105 mm in 2002, 2003 and 2004 respectively. The resistance against anti malarial drug found in 2002, 2003 and 2004 were 9, 4, 9 respectively. Source ( It is an imaginary situation given with data to help student develop research skills) Research Methodology Step 1 Identification of problem from published literature After reading the above mentioned findings, management of heavy occurrence of malarial disease has been identified as a problem. Step 2 literature search for generating the hypothesis taking malaria as a test case Malaria is a very common infectious disease that is commonly associated with poverty. It is caused by protozoan parasites Plasmodium species that is transferred to human being blood circulation system by the vector Anopheles mosquito’s bite(1). Literature show that malarial outbreaks can be related with rainfall in that area (2). Malaria is more common in urban area than in cities. However in Africa it is present in both rural and urban areas (3,4)No literature is available about the relation of malarial incidence with location of the place with height above sea level. The occurrence of malarial outbreak can be related with presence of stagnant water that can support the mosquito survival in populations. Heavy use of anti-malarial drugs and mosquito cidal sprays is reported to produce resistance in the protozoa against commonly used drugs (5). 1) Cox F (2002). History of Human parasitology. Clin Microbiol Rev 15 (4): 595-612. 2) Grover-Kopec E, Kawano M, Klaver R, Blumenthal B, Ceccato P, Connor S. 2005 An online operational rainfall-monitoring resource for epidemic malaria early warning systems in Africa. Malar J 4(1): 6. 3) Van Benthem B, Vanwambeke S, Khantikul N, Burghoorn-Maas C, Panart K, Oskam L, Lambin E, Somboon P 2005.Spatial patterns of and risk factors for seropositivity for dengue infection Am J Trop Med Hyg 72 (2): 201-8. 4) Keiser J, Utzinger J, Caldas de Castro M, Smith T, Tanner M, Singer B 2004. Urbanization in sub-saharan Africa and implication for malaria control. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71 (2 Suppl): 118-27. 5)Rieckmann, K.H.2006 The chequered history of malaria control: are new and better tools the ultimate answer? Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 100(8) 647-662 6) en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria (The Scientific literature is presented with citation of references as is shown in above paragraph) Step 3 Deduction of hypothesis with help of published literature After reading the reported literature as mentioned above following hypothesis can be deduced. Incidence of malaria is dependent on amount of rainfall probably through collection of stagnant water Step 4 Experimental design The data for the parameters analyzed was collected by using standard methods e.g. microscopy of infected blood samples at different hospitals and was published in a newspaper as a scientific report. Step 5 Presentation of Raw data The above mentioned data is presented below in tabular form. Karachi Year Malarial cases reported Mortality Rainfall (mm) No of resistant cases to anti-malarial drug A 2002 530 98 50 12 2003 534760 120001 100 60009 2004 12345668 5408889 10000 9900099 Average/year 4293652.667 1842996 3383.33 3320040 Faisalabad Year Malarial cases reported Mort

Anthem :: essays research papers

Removing the Stains From Society The world’s creatures have always yearned for a special peace that would allow all to become equal. This peace may bring about a utopian world but reality may strike and send a message of what life is really about. Some may think of life as a time to form justice and equality amongst all yet, others think of life as a time to become a higher more authoritative person that the rest of the world. The Residential Community at Beacon Hill Friends House provides the sort of utopian community that many imagine achieving. Everything is equal in a small world like this starting from the management of food to the use of the VCR. The Residential Community at Beacon Hill Friends House has set a realistic utopian society and has not yet corrupted the uniqueness of justice and equality amongst the residents as in Anthem. A utopian society is a form of society in which there is only equality and justice for all. Many utopian societies are formed for means of shelter to those who form similar opinions of how the world should work, some for educational purposes and others for a spiritual communion. The Residential Community at Beacon Hill Friends House was formed â€Å" To advance and foster the distinctive principles of the Religious Society of Friends, to provide opportunities for the development of leadership for the Society, and especially to establish and maintain a center where members of the Society and persons sympathetic to its principles, including those pursuing programs of study at other educational institutions, whether undergraduate, graduate, or special, may meet together, and where such persons may live, and where the principles of the Society may be advanced and fostered by study and example.† This society is still successful in its mission to provide what has been stated. This c ommunity is still open and willing to accept any applicant. There are many elements that are required to maintain a utopian society such as equal chores of an everyday household. There are responsibilities of every resident from cooking food to keeping the house clean. These chores have to be just otherwise the purpose of the utopian society is corrupted. All residents have the same right as any other member of the society yet there are some rules that are to be followed to help maintain the community. This is when a form of self-government comes into action.

operation overlord Essay -- essays research papers

Operation Overlord   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By 1944 World War II had lasted nearly four and a half years. The entire war now depended on the success or failure of an invasion of France. The first three years of the war had almost entirely been a chain of Nazi victories. They had succeeded in crushing Poland and forcing France to surrender. Hitler’s attempts at capturing England were halted by the RAF, Royal Air Force. After the devastating Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Hitler declared war on the United States and forced Italy to follow.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By November of 1942 Hitler began to pay for his string of mistakes. In Egypt his favorite General, Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, had been defeated at The Alamein by the British Eighth Army, after being trapped between two armies. Hitler, fearing he would be captured, ordered him back. The fighting in Russia had been so severe and deadly that Marshal Stalin was demanding an allied landing in France, so as to force Hitler to move his troops from Stalin’s divisions in the East. The line of trust between Stalin and the allies was thin, but fearing Russia would leave the was, the United States and Britain send Canadian soldiers and British commandos to raid France’s Port of Dieppe. Nearly five-thousand troops were either dead, wounded or captured by the alert German forces, it had been a disaster.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Britain and the United States were butting heads on whether to invade Europe at the earliest possible opportunity. Britain argued that a failure of not capturing a strong hold on a beachhead could set them back two years. In August of 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill met in Quebec, Canada and the invasion was approved. The plan included the landing of allied troops on different beaches, and also the battles that would follow, on the quest for Berlin. The shortest route would be Dover to Calais, but that would be a place where Germany would expect an invasion and would be heavily guarded. Now all eyes were pointing towards Normandy. The distance was almost twice that of Dover to Calais.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The final review of Operation Overlord was held on May 15,1944 at the St. Paul’s school in West London. The plan had taken nearly two years to plan. Attending the review was everyone who had a role i... ...o late, the Germans had waited too long. The Germans fought to reach the gap and the British fought to reach Caen. Allied planes came to relieve some troops in the Cotentin, and planes and naval gunfire cut off the Germans. It was a stalemate. When Hitler awoke and released the two divisions, he thought it would be enough to rid the allies in Normandy. The Panzer divisions got word at 5 p.m. and were ordered to move out at first light. It was too late. By June 8th, the holds on the beachheads were strong. 155,000 soldiers were poured into Normandy on the first day alone.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  No accurate number of how many allied troops died in Normandy can be determined. After fifty-five days the allied troops had reached where they should have five days after the initial invasion. Still they prevailed. D-day had been the beginning of the end for the German rule. Today signs of the massive, and deadly battles that took place on the Normandy beaches can still be seen. Rusting hulks of ships still sunk in the sea can be seen. But the most visible, is the military cemeteries and the rows of carefully placed white crosses that remind people the cost of the invasion that day. operation overlord Essay -- essays research papers Operation Overlord   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By 1944 World War II had lasted nearly four and a half years. The entire war now depended on the success or failure of an invasion of France. The first three years of the war had almost entirely been a chain of Nazi victories. They had succeeded in crushing Poland and forcing France to surrender. Hitler’s attempts at capturing England were halted by the RAF, Royal Air Force. After the devastating Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Hitler declared war on the United States and forced Italy to follow.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By November of 1942 Hitler began to pay for his string of mistakes. In Egypt his favorite General, Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, had been defeated at The Alamein by the British Eighth Army, after being trapped between two armies. Hitler, fearing he would be captured, ordered him back. The fighting in Russia had been so severe and deadly that Marshal Stalin was demanding an allied landing in France, so as to force Hitler to move his troops from Stalin’s divisions in the East. The line of trust between Stalin and the allies was thin, but fearing Russia would leave the was, the United States and Britain send Canadian soldiers and British commandos to raid France’s Port of Dieppe. Nearly five-thousand troops were either dead, wounded or captured by the alert German forces, it had been a disaster.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Britain and the United States were butting heads on whether to invade Europe at the earliest possible opportunity. Britain argued that a failure of not capturing a strong hold on a beachhead could set them back two years. In August of 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill met in Quebec, Canada and the invasion was approved. The plan included the landing of allied troops on different beaches, and also the battles that would follow, on the quest for Berlin. The shortest route would be Dover to Calais, but that would be a place where Germany would expect an invasion and would be heavily guarded. Now all eyes were pointing towards Normandy. The distance was almost twice that of Dover to Calais.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The final review of Operation Overlord was held on May 15,1944 at the St. Paul’s school in West London. The plan had taken nearly two years to plan. Attending the review was everyone who had a role i... ...o late, the Germans had waited too long. The Germans fought to reach the gap and the British fought to reach Caen. Allied planes came to relieve some troops in the Cotentin, and planes and naval gunfire cut off the Germans. It was a stalemate. When Hitler awoke and released the two divisions, he thought it would be enough to rid the allies in Normandy. The Panzer divisions got word at 5 p.m. and were ordered to move out at first light. It was too late. By June 8th, the holds on the beachheads were strong. 155,000 soldiers were poured into Normandy on the first day alone.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  No accurate number of how many allied troops died in Normandy can be determined. After fifty-five days the allied troops had reached where they should have five days after the initial invasion. Still they prevailed. D-day had been the beginning of the end for the German rule. Today signs of the massive, and deadly battles that took place on the Normandy beaches can still be seen. Rusting hulks of ships still sunk in the sea can be seen. But the most visible, is the military cemeteries and the rows of carefully placed white crosses that remind people the cost of the invasion that day.

Greek Influence on English Language

Indirect and direct borrowings Since the living Greek and English languages were not in direct contact until modern times, borrowings were necessarily indirect, coming either through Latin (through texts or various vernaculars), or from Ancient Greek texts, not the living language. Some Greek words were borrowed into  Latin  and its descendants, the  Romance languages. English often received these words from  French. Their phonetic and orthographic form has sometimes changed considerably.For instance,  place  was borrowed both by Old English and by French from Latin  platea, itself borrowed from Greek ( ) ‘broad (street)'; the Italian  piazza  and Spanish  plaza  have the same origin, and have been borrowed into English in parallel. The word  olive  comes through the  Romance  from the Latin word  oliva, which in turn comes from the Greek (elaiwa). [1][2]  A later Greek word,   (bouturon)[3]  becomes Latin  butyrum  and eventually Engl ish  butter. A large group of early borrowings, again transmitted first through Latin, then through various vernaculars, comes from Christian vocabulary:  bishop  < episkopos  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœoverseer'),  priest  < (presbyteros  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœelder'), and  church  <  ? (kyriakon). [4]  In some cases, the orthography of these words was later changed to reflect the Greek spelling:  e. g. quire  was respelled as  choir  in the 17th century. Many more words were borrowed by scholars writing in post-classical Latin. Some words were borrowed in essentially their original meaning, often transmitted through classical Latin:  physics,iambic,  eta,  necromancy. A few result from scribal errors:  encyclopedia  < ‘the circle of learning', not a compound in Greek;  acne  (skin condition) < erroneous lt; ‘high point, acme'. Others were borrowed unchanged as technical terms, but with specific, novel meanings:  telescope  < †˜far-seeing' refers to an  optical instrument for seeing far away;  phlogiston  < ‘burnt thing' is a supposed  fire-making potential. But by far the largest Greek contribution to English vocabulary is the huge number of scientific, medical, and technical  neologisms  that have been coined by  compounding Greek roots and affixesto produce novel words which never existed in the Greek language:  utopia  (1516, ‘not' + ‘place'),  zoology  (1669, ),  hydrodynamics  (1738, + ),  photography(1834, + ),  oocyte  (1895, + ),  helicobacter  (1989, + ). Such terms are coined in all the European languages, and spread to the others freely—including to Modern Greek. Traditionally, these coinages were constructed using only Greek morphemes,  e. g. metamathematics, but increasingly, Greek, Latin, and other morphemes are combined, as intelevision  (Greek – + Latin  vision),  metalinguistic  (Greek + Lati n  lingua  + Greek - + Greek - ), and  garbology  (English  garbage  + Greek - . These  hybrid words  were formerly considered to be ‘barbarisms'. Many Greek affixes such as  anti-  and  -ic  have become  productive  in English, combining with arbitrary English words:  antichoice,  Fascistic. Most learned borrowings and coinages follow the classical Latin  Romanization system, where ‘c' represents ? etc. , with a few exceptions:  eureka  (cf. heuristic),  kinetic  (cf. cinematography),krypton  (cf. cryptic). Some Greek words were borrowed through Arabic and then Romance:  alchemy  ( or ),  elixir  ( ),  alembic  ( ),  botargo  ( , and possibly  quintal  ( < Latincentenarium (pondus)). Curiously,  chemist  appears to be a  back-formation  from  alchemist. In the 19th and 20th centuries a few learned words and phrases were introduced using a more or less direct transliteration of Ancient Greek (r ather than the traditional Latin-based morphology and dropped inflectional endings),  e. g. nous  ( ),  hoi polloi  ( ). Some Greek words have given rise to  etymological doublets, being borrowed both through an organic, indirect route, and a learned, direct route into English:  anthem  and  antiphon  ( ,frantic  and  frenetic  ( ),  butter  and  butyr(ic)  ( ),  bishop  and  episcop(al)  ( ),  balm  and  balsam  ( , probably itself a borrowing from Semitic),  blame  and  blasphemy( ),  box  and  pyx(is)  ( ),  choir  and  chorus  ( ),  trivet  and  tripod  ( / -),  slander  and  scandal  ( ),  oil,  olive,  oleum, and  elaeo-  ( );  almond  and  amygdala( );  dram  and  drachma  ( );  paper  and  papyrus  ( );  carat  and  keratin  ( , -). [5][6] Finally, with the growth of tourism, some words reflecting modern Greek ulture have been borrowed into Englishà ¢â‚¬â€many of them originally borrowings into Greek themselves:  retsina,  souvlaki,taverna  (< Italian),  ouzo  (disputed etymology),  moussaka  (< Turkish < Arabic),  baklava  (< Turkish),  feta  (< Italian),  bouzouki  (< Turkish),  gyro  (the food, a calque of Turkish  doner). ————————————————- [edit]Greek as an intermediary Many words from the  Hebrew Bible  were transmitted to the western languages through the Greek of the  Septuagint, often without morphological regularization:  pharaoh  ( ),  seraphim( , ,  paradise  ( < Hebrew < Persian),  rabbi  ( ). ————————————————- [edit]The written form of Greek words in English Many Greek words, especially those borrowed through the liter ary tradition, are recognizable as such from their spelling. Already in Latin, there were specific conventions for borrowing Greek. So Greek  ? was written as ‘y',   as ‘? ‘,   as ‘? ‘,  ? as ‘ph', and  ? as ‘c'. These conventions (which originally reflected pronunciation) have carried over into English and other languages with historical orthography (like French).They make it possible to recognize words of Greek origin, and give hints as to their pronunciation and inflection. On the other hand, the spelling of some words was refashioned to reflect their etymology:  Middle English  caracter  became  character  in the 16th century. [7] The Ancient Greek diphthongs   and   may be spelled in three different ways in English: the digraphs  ae  and  oe; the ligatures  ? and  ? ; or the simple letter  e. Both the digraphs and ligatures are uncommon in American usage, but the digraphs remain common in British usag e. Examples are: encyclopaedia /encyclop? ia / encyclopedia, haemoglobin / h? moglobin / hemoglobin, oedema / ? dema / edema, Oedipus / ? dipus / Edipus (rare). The verbal ending  - is spelled  -ize  in American English and  -ise  or  -ize  in British English. In some cases, a word's spelling clearly shows its Greek origin. If it includes  ph  or includes  y  between consonants, it is very likely Greek. If it includes  rrh,  phth, or  chth; or starts with  hy-,  ps-,  pn-, or  chr-; or the rarer  pt-,  ct-,  chth-,  rh-,  x-,  sth-,  mn-,  tm-,  gn-  or  bd-, then it is Greek, with some exceptions:  gnat,  gnaw,  gneiss.One exception is  ptarmigan, which is from a  Gaelic  word, the  phaving been added by  false etymology. The word  trophy, though ultimately of Greek origin, did not have a  ? but a  ? in its Greek form, . ——————————â⠂¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€- [edit]Pronunciation In clusters such as  ps-,  pn-, or  gn-  which are not allowed by  English phonotactics, the usual English pronunciation drops the first consonant (e. g. psychology) at the start of a word; comparegnostic  [n? st? k] and  agnostic  [? gn? st? k]; there are a few exceptions:  tmesis  [tmi? s? s].Initial  x-  is pronounced  z. Ch  is pronounced like  k  rather than as in â€Å"church†:  e. g. character, chaos. Consecutive vowels are often pronounced separately rather than forming a single vowel sound or one of them becoming silent (e. g. â€Å"theatre†Ã‚  vs. â€Å"feat†). ————————————————- [edit]Inflectional endings and plurals Though many English words derived from Greek through the literary route drop the inflectional endings (tripod,  zoology,  pe ntagon) or use Latin endings (papyrus,  mausoleum), some preserve the Greek endings:  tetrahedron,  schema  (cf. cheme),  topos,  lexicon,  climax. In the case of Greek endings, the plurals sometimes follow the  Greek rules:  phenomenon, phenomena;  tetrahedron, tetrahedra;  crisis, crises;  hypothesis, hypotheses;  stigma, stigmata;  topos, topoi;  cyclops, cyclopes; but often do not:  colon, colons  not  *cola  (except for the  very rare technical term of rhetoric);pentathlon, pentathlons  not  *pentathla;  demon, demons  not  *demones;  climaxes, not  *climaces.Usage is mixed in some cases:  schema, schemas  or  schemata;  lexicon, lexicons  or  lexica;  helix, helixes  or  helices;  sphinx, sphinges  or  sphinxes;  clitoris, clitorises  or  clitorides. And there are misleading cases:  pentagon  comes from Greek  pentagonon, so its plural cannot be  *pentaga; it ispentagons  (Greek   / pentagona). (cf. Plurals from Latin and Greek) ————————————————- [edit]Verbs Few English verbs are derived from the corresponding Greek verbs; examples are  baptize  and  ostracize.However, the Greek verbal suffix  -ize  is productive in Latin, the Romance languages, and English: words like  metabolize, though composed of a Greek root and a Greek suffix, are modern compounds. ————————————————- [edit]Statistics The contribution of Greek to the English vocabulary can be quantified in two ways,  type  and  token  frequencies: type frequency is the proportion of distinct words; token frequency is the proportion of words in actual texts.Since most words of Greek origin are specialized technical and scientific coinages, the type frequency is conside rably higher than the token frequency. And the type frequency in a large word list will be larger than that in a small word list. In a typical English dictionary of 80,000 words, which corresponds very roughly to the vocabulary of an educated English speaker, about 5% of the words are borrowed from Greek directly, and about 25% indirectly (if we count modern coinages from Greek roots as Greek). citation needed] ————————————————- [edit]References 1. ^  This must have been an early borrowing, since the Latin  v  reflects a still-pronounced  digamma. The Greek word was in turn apparently borrowed from a pre-Indo-European  Mediterranean  substrate(see also  Greek substrate language), although the earliest attested form of it is the  Mycenaean Greek  e-ra-wa  (transliterated as â€Å"elava†), attested in  Linear B  syllabic script—see  e- ra-wa, Mycenaean (Linear b) – English Glossary 2.   Palaeolexicon, Word study tool of ancient languages 3. ^  Carl Darling Buck,  A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal Indo-European Languages  ISBN 0-226-07937-6  notes that the word has the form of a compound + ‘cow-cheese', possibly a calque from Scythian, or possibly an adaptation of a native Scythian word 4. ^  church, on Oxford Dictionaries